BC. the Medes already had a strong state, royal power and a powerful army. In 614 and 612 BC. the Indian king Cyaxares, having entered into an alliance with Babylon, took an active part in the defeat of Assyria (see Art. "Assyria"). Cyaxares and his successors were unable to annex all the possessions of the deceased Assyrian power, but still the Median kingdom by 600 BC. significantly increased, and the Iranians were now subordinate to their neighbors and relatives.
By the beginning of the VI century. BC. Iranians differed in many ways from other peoples of the Ancient East. There are no large rivers and vast valleys in Iran; conditions for irrigated agriculture. Therefore, there were no officials who would drive the people to work, there were no temples that would guide the life of people in the community. The Iranians were ruled not so much by kings from the Achaemenid family, as by tribal leaders; the priests offered sacrifices to the gods in the open air. Each man was a proud warrior, a free and full person. When Iran had already become a great kingdom, the Iranians were exempted from work on the construction of royal palaces - they were considered humiliating. The Iranians did not pay monetary taxes. From time to time the people sent foodstuffs to their king; as in ancient times, the tribe continued to feed its leader, as if forgetting that now he was in charge of the richest treasury in the world.
The freedom-loving character was especially vividly shown by representatives of the nobility. For a very long time they considered themselves equal to the kings: they demanded that they marry their daughters, or, for example, sought the right to enter the royal chambers at any time. The nobility enjoyed the support of tribal military detachments, and the kings were highly dependent on the Iranian army: it was the warriors who proclaimed the name of the new king when the rulers changed. The king, who did not receive the approval of the army, could not stay on the throne.
It can be seen that it was quite difficult to manage the Iranians. A young ruler from the Achaemenid family, Cyrus II, who came to power in 558 BC. e. and declaring himself the king of all Iranians, he understood the complexity of the tasks facing him. Cyrus could rally his subjects by organizing military campaigns against neighboring peoples and promising the Iranian nobility more booty. But the young king saw that the strength of the Iranians alone was not enough for this. And then an important trump card turned out to be in his hands - the Iranian king on his mother's side was the grandson of the Median king Astyages - Cyrus laid claim to the Median throne. The Median nobility counted on the fact that it would be easy to obtain concessions in their favor from an inexperienced foreign ruler. Under her pressure, Astyages was forced to declare Cyrus his heir. In 550 BC Cyrus became king of Iran and Media. From that moment, the Iranian state became, as it were, two heads: one - in Ekbatani, the capital of Media, the other - in Pasargadae, the capital of Iran.
Plans for his conquest Cyrus cunningly and subtly thought out. First of all, he crushed a serious rival - the state of Lydia, located in Asia Minor. Then Cyrus conquered the tribes of Central Asia related to the Iranians. Thus, peoples close to each other were united into a single state. Only after that, in 539 BC, Cyrus went on a campaign against Babylon. The great city was already surrounded on all sides by Iranian possessions and after two months of resistance surrendered to Cyrus (see article *Babylon>). Surrendered to him and many trading cities located on the Mediterranean coast, because. merchants saw the conquerors as quite acceptable hosts: after all, the Iranians themselves were not engaged in trade and did not threaten their profits. It was also important that Cyrus behaved mercifully with the peoples of the enslaved countries, respected local customs, revered local gods and did not burden the population with the imposition of large tributes.
In less than twenty years, Cyrus II created a huge power that included Asia Minor, Transcaucasia, Syria, Palestine, Mesopotamia, the Iranian Highlands, and Central Asia. Under the son of Cyrus II Cambyses, Egypt was annexed to the state, and under his successor Darius, the northwestern regions of India. It must be said that Cyrus was respected by his multilingual subjects: the Iranians called him "father", other peoples of the empire revered him as a just and merciful king.
In 530 BC Cyrus died during a fight with the nomadic tribe of Massagets on the eastern bank of the Amu Darya River. And eight years later, the state was on the verge of collapse. Both Iranian and Median nobility were dissatisfied with the strengthening of the power of the Achaemenid kings. The contradictions between the Iranians and the Medes escalated. The people-army felt that its rights were being gradually curtailed, and was ready to stand up for itself. In the conquered countries, the new masters were expected to establish a firm order, secure trade, and introduce a single monetary system throughout Asia Minor. Instead, the Iranians sank deeper and deeper into internal strife. Finally, such a dubious person appeared on the throne as an impostor who declared himself Bardia, the brother of Cambyses.
The Iranian king Darius III Kodoman was looking for a meeting with the invader. Iran has long been famous for its cavalry, which was strong on flat ground. The Iranian king, no less than Alexander, was confident in his abilities and was in such a hurry to meet the uninvited guest that, not listening to any advice, he entered the rugged terrain of Cilicia, deciding to go to Alexander's rear. Now the Iranians could not use their famous cavalry and even numerical superiority (according to ancient historians, the army of Darius III outnumbered the Macedonian three times).
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The ancient Greeks considered the legislator Lycurgus to be the creator of the Spartan state. The writer and historian Plutarch, the author of biographies of prominent Greeks and Romans, starting a story about the life and reforms of Lycurgus, warns readers that nothing strictly reliable can be reported about them. Nevertheless, he has no doubt that this politician was a historical figure. Most modern scientists consider Lycurgus to be a legendary (never existing) person, and the amazing political system of Sparta is a consequence of the preservation of primitive pre-state forms of human society in it. Other historians, agreeing that Lycurgus is a fictitious figure, do not completely deny the legend about the emergence of the Spartan state as a result of a coup after long troubles in the first half of the 6th century. BC. There is also a third group of scientists who believe that historians have no serious grounds for complete distrust of the reports of ancient writers. In the biography of Lycurgus, they believe, there is nothing fantastic, and the implementation of reforms in Sparta two centuries earlier than in other parts of Balkan Greece is explained by the difficult situation that has developed in Laconia. The Dorians who founded the Spartan state came here as conquerors and, in order to keep the local Achaean population enslaved by them, needed to accelerate the creation of the institutions necessary for this.
November 12, 333 BC The battle took place on the river Pindar near the city of Iss. The Macedonian troops slowly approached the enemy and immediately went on the attack. The Iranians began to retreat under the onslaught of the Greeks and Macedonians. Alexander, who fought in the forefront, noticed Darius on a gilded chariot in the center of the army and rushed towards him, not noticing the wound and destroying everything in his path. Fast, furious, impulsive, he sought to end the matter with one blow - the single combat of kings should decide which of them to rule in Asia. But Darius, standing among the fighting and dying bodyguards and nobles, seeing the Macedonian king so close intoxicated with battle, was the first of his army to rush to escape. After that, even the left flank of the Iranians, which had successfully pressed the Macedonians, fled. Panic began, which ended in a crushing defeat for the Iranian army. The whole family of the Iranian king was captured by Alexander.
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The history of the Hebrew people is reflected in the Bible - a unique collection of mythological and religious traditions and treatises, historical chronicles and romantic stories. But it is impossible to restore how events developed during the appearance of Jewish tribes in Palestine from the texts of the Bible. According to the Bible, before coming to Palestine, the Israelites, descendants of Abraham's grandson, Jacob (his middle name is Israel), settled in Egypt. There they fell into slavery. God Yahweh heard the groans of the oppressed people and called on Moses, a Jew from the “tribe” (tribe) of Levi, to lead the people of Israel out of Egypt. On Mount Sinai, Yahweh appeared to Moses and gave him ten commandments - prohibitions and commands that regulate human behavior before God. A covenant was made between the people of Israel and God. The people promised to do the will of God, for which Yahweh gave them the land of Canaan. Violation of the "covenant" threatened with cruel punishments, up to the complete extermination of the people. Moses was not destined to set foot on the land of Canaan. The Bible names Joshua as the leader of the Jewish tribes that appeared in Palestine. Scientists consider the biblical story about the stay of the Jews in Egypt and the exodus from it a myth that is not confirmed by historical sources. Moses and Joshua are the same, obviously, mythical heroes, like the hero Samson, who, as it is told in the Bible, beat the enemy army with one donkey's jaw.
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Then he crossed to Attica and on the Marathon plain fought with the Athenian militia, which was much inferior in number to him, to whose aid only detachments from the Boeotian city of Platea managed to come. The outstanding commander Miltiades, who led the Athenian army, correctly assessing the difficult combat situation, overturned the flanks of the enemy formation with a swift blow, after which the main Persian forces, which at first were successful in the center, were utterly defeated. The remnants of the enemy troops fled to the ships in a panic.
With the joyful news of the victory won, a messenger was immediately sent to Athens. The warrior ran more than 42 km without a break and, having informed his fellow citizens about what had happened, fell dead. The Athenian army also hastened to their native city. And, as it turned out, not in vain. The Persian fleet tried to take the Athenians by surprise and attack the city, almost devoid of defenders, but was too late and met the same victorious militia under the command of Miltiades at the proposed landing site, after which he went back to Asia.
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For several centuries, the definition of "mysterious Etruscans" has not left the pages of scientific works. The most surprising thing is that, unlike other peoples of the Ancient World, the Etruscans never plunged into the darkness of oblivion. Great Rome took a lot from their culture and passed on its legacy to European civilization. After Rome subjugated the Etruscan cities, the educated and noble representatives of their ancient families continued to play a prominent role. The first Roman kings came from Etruria. A friend of Emperor Octavian Augustus, the patron of poets Gaius Cylnius Maecenas, whose name became a household name, was a descendant of the Etruscan royal family from the city of Arretius. The poets Publius Virgil Maron, Avl of Persia Flaccus, Sextus Propertius came from the Etruscan cities. The closest friend of the famous Roman orator, politician and philosopher Cicero, Aulus Caecina belonged to the most ancient Etruscan family that ruled in the city of Volaterra. The crypt of this family discovered by archaeologists has been used for many centuries. The last in the family was Bishop Tsetsina, who died in 1765.
The works of Greek and Roman writers brought to us numerous information about the powerful Etruscans, their religion, cities surrounded by powerful walls, about rivalry with the Greeks for dominance in the Western Mediterranean. We learn a lot directly from the Etruscans themselves - more precisely, from their heritage that has come down to us. Time did not spare their cities and temples built of unbaked bricks. But the necropolises have survived - the "cities of the dead", satellites of all Etruscan cities. The crypts, repeating the layouts of the residential houses of the nobility, decorated with frescoes and filled with precious utensils, tell about the life of the Etruscans, their ideas about the world and the gods, their art and the level of development of the craft, and extensive trade relations with the peoples of the Mediterranean. In a word, historians have extensive material at their disposal for studying various aspects of the life of ancient Etruria. Then why did the Etruscans remain "mysterious" for centuries? But the fact is that scientists do not know the most important thing: who they are, when and how they appeared in Italy, what language they spoke. Ancient writers argued about the origin of the Etruscans. The Greek historian Herodotus claimed that the Etruscans, or Tyrrhenians, as they were called in antiquity, sailed by sea from Asia Minor Lydia. The writer Dionysius of Halicarnassus, objecting to him, argued that the Etruscans were one of the local Italian peoples. In the work of the Roman historian Titus Livy there is an indication, though very vague, of the northern origin of the Etruscans. The dispute, begun in antiquity, is continued by modern researchers.