среда, 10 августа 2022 г.

News update 10/08/2022 14

The history of Urartu, covering about three centuries (900-600 BC), is filled with bright and dramatic events. The confrontation between Urartu and Assyria played an important role in the history of Western Asia. It was the Urartians who forced the Assyrians to strain their strength, to rebuild the economy and society on a military footing. These measures made the Assyrian war machine unusually formidable, but deprived it of a solid foundation. The desperate struggle of the Kingdom of Van with the greatest of the Asian powers gave the necessary respite and time to create their own states to the young peoples of the Iranian Highlands - the Medes and Iranians. 
Recognized as the hegemon by almost all Hellenic policies, Philip II began to prepare for a big campaign to the East. However, he did not live to see his plan come true: he fell at the hands of an assassin in 336 BC. The Greco-Macedonian conquest of the Persian state of the Achaemenids was carried out under the leadership of his son and heir - Alexander (336-323 BC). From this moment, modern historians begin the countdown of the Hellenistic era, which ended three centuries later.

The huge empire created by Alexander the Great, stretching from the Lower Danube and Kira-naiki to the Syr Darya and the Indus, collapsed after his death, but several states arose on its ruins - the power of the Seleucids, Ptolemaic Egypt, the Bactrian kingdom, Pontus, Pergamum, Cappadocia, Bithynia and others where the Greek ethnic element and Hellenic culture retained a dominant position (see Art. "Hellenistic States").


Of the monarchies inherited by the successors of the great conqueror, the most significant role in the history of Ancient Greece in the last centuries of its independence was played by the same Macedonia. The kings of the Macedonian Antigonid dynasty repeatedly interfered in the affairs of the Hellenistic city-states, subordinating them to their power.

They took place in the second half of the 3rd century. - the beginning of the 2nd century BC. attempts by individual kings of Sparta (Agi-sa IV, Cleomenes III, Mahanid, Nabis) to revive at least to some extent the former power and glory of the once leading Dorian policy. At the same time, the Spartan dynasts, classified by ancient authors as tyrants by the nature of their rule, tried to recreate the economic base and human resources through radical reforms (cassation of debts, redistribution of land and money, increase in the number of full citizens due to the release of slaves, etc.). states. But such risky social experiments always aroused active opposition from other slave-owning policies of the Peloponnese and the Macedonian kings who, on this occasion, entered into an alliance with them.

After the destruction by the Romans in 168 BC. In the Macedonian kingdom, only the Aetolian and Achaean unions retained a certain influence in mainland Greece. But they could not resist the powerful expansion of Rome. In 146 BC. the Romans destroyed Corinth and some other Hellenic cities as a warning to the disobedient. Greece came under the control of the Roman authorities in the province of Macedonia.

The final moment of the Hellenistic era is considered to be the conquest by the first emperor-princeps of Rome, Augustus, of the last major state formation from the inheritance of Alexander the Great - Egypt, which was ruled from 323 to 30 BC. the Ptolemaic dynasty.
Who knows whether the civilization of Ancient Greece would have been able to develop later if the Assyrian armies had come to the Asia Minor coast of the Aegean Sea?
Solon lived in difficult times. The former order, based on the domination of the tribal nobility, was dying away, the demos (the people) rose to fight against the aristocracy. Ignorant, but wealthy citizens considered unfair the undivided dominance of the aristocracy in the courts and administration. Breaking the traditional foundations of life painfully responded in the minds of people. It was hard to live for a peasant who fell into debt bondage and lost faith in the justice of the strong. With hopeless longing, the aristocrats looked at life - cursing, invoking heavenly punishments on the heads of the "self-thinking mob", not seeing anything good in the future. The Megarian poet-aristocrat Theognid, expelled from his native city, assured: “The best lot for mortals is to never be born into the world. And never see the bright sun rays.

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Even before becoming a legislator, Solon took an active part in the political life of Athens. His hometown waged a long war with the neighboring city of Megara for possession of the island of Sala-min, lying off the coast of Attica. After another defeat, the Athenian popular assembly forbade under pain of death to raise the issue of resuming the war. Many citizens, dissatisfied with the ban, did not dare to openly oppose it. Then Solon, in order to raise the morale of the Athenians, ran out, pretending to be crazy, into the square and sang verses in which he called for the capture of Solomin. The poems made such a strong impression on the citizens of Athens that they immediately decided to start a war with the Megarians and appointed Solon as commander. The island was reconquered, and Solon gained considerable political authority. There is nothing strange in the fact that the performance of a madman was taken seriously by his compatriots: madness, the ancients believed, was from the gods. And in this case, the gods through Solon expressed their will. 

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Undoubtedly, the political views of Solon were formed and were well known in Athenian society by 594 BC. It was then that he was elected the first archon - the highest official in Athens, with broad powers of the esement (intermediary). By this time, the contradictions between the people and the nobility had reached the limit, but the warring parties had the prudence to turn to Solon with a request for the necessary reforms. Solon, not without hesitation, began to transform the political system of Athens. The nobility hoped that Solon, himself being an aristocrat, would strengthen her position. Demos, considering Solon a just man, expected from him a general redistribution of property and the equalization of all rights. Solon was not going to do either one or the other.
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He considered the claims of the nobility to be excessive and reproached her in his poems: “Calm your mighty heart in your chest: You got a lot of blessings - you are fed up with them, put Measure on the arrogant spirit: otherwise we will stop obeying, and everything will not be to your liking. ". The idea of ​​universal property and political equality was also unacceptable for Solon, which he put on a par with the hated tyranny: “... I don’t like to rule tyranny by force, just as in the pastures of my relatives, Give the thin and noble an equal share.”
Solon's reforms did not lead to a radical break in Athens by the beginning of the VT c. BC. public relations. They only changed what threatened the state with death. Solon freed the demos from debt bondage and forever forbade the enslavement of Athenian citizens for debts. He returned to the peasants the land allotments taken from them by the nobility. All citizens were divided into classes according to their incomes; the political rights of a citizen no longer depended on his origin, but on his condition. Only the rich could be elected to the highest positions, but on the other hand, all citizens, without distinction of property status, now participated in the national assembly and in the jury created by Solon (see article “Ancient Greece”).
The reforms caused general bewilderment and irritation. Trying to explain to fellow citizens the meaning of the transformations, Solon again resorts to poetry. There are many bitter confessions in them: "... Having gathered all the courage to fight, I was like a wolf circling among a pack of dogs." And again: “Everyone once rejoiced, but now they always see me off with an evil look, as if I were their worst enemy.”

The attempt to achieve universal agreement failed. Not wanting to change anything in his laws, Solon leaves Athens and becomes a traveler again. He sails to Egypt, has conversations with the priests there, then goes to Cyprus and helps the local king to found a new city. Ancient authors wrote many stories about Solon's meetings with famous contemporaries. When visiting the capital of the Lydian kingdom - the city of Sardis - for example, he talked with the king Croesus, who went down in history, and taught him a lesson in Hellenic wisdom.
According to Solon, the life of society should be regulated by law and laws adopted with universal consent. These principles were put by Solon in the basis of his reforms. For Solon, the rich and the poor, the noble and the humble, are equal members of a single civil society. For the sake of the unity and prosperity of society, mutual concessions and compromises are necessary. About his role, Solon said in verse: “I got up, covering both with a mighty shield, And I didn’t give anyone to win the wrong of others.” Courage and a strong will were required to consistently carry out such an intention.
Solon's actions characterize him as a rational person. Constantly referring to the authority of the gods, in worldly affairs he preferred to be guided by common sense. Proving the original belonging of Salamis to Athens, Solon was not afraid to open several graves on the island and show the Megarians that the dead were buried according to the custom of the Athenians. Moreover, he went on a frank forgery: using the authority in Greece of Homer's poems, he inserted into one of them a line proving Salamis's long-standing connection with Athens. Such tricks were not considered a vice at that time - on the contrary, they created a reputation for a person as a smart and subtle politician. Solon began to be invited to mediate in disputes between noble Athenian families. Respect and fame throughout Greece brought him a speech in defense of the Delphic temple of the god Apollo, whose land was seized by the inhabitants of the city of Kirra.

Solon was a cheerful and even frivolous person, according to the definition of his biographer Plutarch. He loved life and, having endured many failures and disappointments, he wrote: “Now Dionysus, Cyprida and the Muses have become dear to me - those whose amusements instill joy in people.” The enmity and hatred that flared up in society made him suffer too: “Yes, I understand, and grief sunk deep into my heart: I see how the former first country of the Inter-Ionian lands is bowing down.” He was close to the new people who had risen from the people, understood their needs, realized their strength. Therefore, unlike the aristocrats, who persisted in adherence to the old order, he was ready to contribute to the establishment of a new socio-political system and knew how to do it.

Two and a half thousand years ago, the Iranian king Darius I ordered his servants to inscribe a long inscription on a high sheer rock, which is called Behistunskaya after the name of the neighboring village. It is impossible to read the inscription from below - 105 meters separate it from the ground. The first European travelers, in order to get acquainted with the inscription, were forced to use the help of dexterous Iranian boys, who reached the farthest corners of the 22-meter inscription and sketched the ancient letters.

It is clear that the inscription on the rock was not intended for human eyes. At the same time, Darius tells in it about events well known to the people of his country: how he became the king of Iran by killing the impostor Gaumata, who had seized the throne six months earlier. To whom did Darius want to tell about what had happened? Probably the gods and eternity. Obviously, the new king attached great importance to his victory over Gaumata and wanted to keep her memory forever. The supreme god of the Iranians, Ah-uramazda, is depicted on a stone illustration for an inscription with a raised right hand blessing Darius; with his left, he hands Darius a ring - a sign of royal power. Darius believed that the gods themselves elevated him to the throne, entrusting him with the task of saving and strengthening the state, and he was able to complete this task. The events described in the Behi-stun inscription really strongly influenced the course of the history of the Ancient World. Their origins, however, date back to much older times.
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