newsmediaarchives: News updates RSS 14/07/2022 41

Khubilai immediately gathered like-minded people and in 1260 declared himself the Great Khan. The Mongolian nobility proclaimed the ruler of his younger brother Arig-Buku. Discord boiled up. When Khubilai succeeded in capturing his recalcitrant brother in 1264, who soon died in captivity, another pretender appeared - Ogedei's grandson, Kaidu, supported by relatives. Only in 1289 Khubilai managed to get rid of his competitors.

The residence of the Great Khan was first located in Kaiping-Shandu - the Upper Capital. Later, he ordered the construction of his "Great Capital" near Zhongdu, the stronghold of the Jin dynasty overthrown by the Mongols. The city was called Daidu, or Khan-balyk, later it became known as Beijing.

In 1271, Khubilai calls his state "Yuan", which means "new", "beginning". He wanted to convince the Chinese of the beginning of a qualitatively new period of his reign. Khubilai proclaims himself emperor - the son of heaven, restores many orders that previously existed in China.

During his long (1260-1294) reign, Khubilai did not disregard everything that happened in his native pastures and did not forget to add more and more new lands to his possessions. In 1279, all of China and Tibet were already subject to him, campaigns were undertaken in Burma, Cambodia, the Sunda Islands, and even Japan, which was twice saved by storms that destroyed almost the entire military squadron of the Mongols.

The Yuan troops could still win, but they did not have enough strength to consolidate what they had won with the sword. It was no longer the bathers of Genghis Khan, whose warlike spirit, courage and courage were the key to victory, that fought, but forced people. Only the fear of death at the hands of the Mongol commanders forced them to go into battle. Such an army could not be relied upon, and the Yuan emperors became hostages in the hands of the palace clique.

After the death of Khubilai, eight emperors were replaced on the Yuan throne, and not one lived to a ripe old age. The last was Toghon Temur, who ascended the throne as a 13-year-old boy and reigned for 36 years. Four years after his accession to the throne, an uprising broke out in China. Like a flame, it engulfed almost the entire country. To suppress it, extreme measures had to be taken. The reign of Togon-Temur ended in 1368. He had to flee to the Mongolian lands. There, in the vicinity of Dalai Lake, his devoted supporters, expelled from China, gathered. Two years later, the headquarters of Togon-Temur was defeated by the army of the Ming dynasty. Only his son Ayushridara managed to escape, who fled to Karakorum, where he was proclaimed the Great Mongol Khan under the name of Biliktu Khan. The battles of the Mongols with the Chinese took place with varying success: both did not have enough strength for a decisive victory. The truce concluded in 1374 was observed until the death of Biliktu Khan in 1378. Then the war flared up with renewed vigor, although Mongolia was torn apart by contradictions: in 12 years, 12 rulers were replaced there, who were put on the throne and overthrown by the Mongolian nobility. Trying to achieve personal independence, she entered into an alliance even with the Ming dynasty.

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The scrolls were kept in chests and wall niches. Some texts were intended specifically for burials; many of them have survived to our time. The Egyptians also wrote on linen fabrics. Such fabrics, in particular, were wrapped around mummies. The texts were sometimes accompanied by drawings.

All texts were handwritten. The only known exception is the so-called Phaistos disk, found in Crete and made in the 17th century. BC. This hitherto unread text was inscribed on wet clay in a manner similar to a mechanical one: the signs were cut on stamps and imprinted on wet clay.

When in the IX-VIII centuries. BC. the Greeks had an alphabetic writing, they began to write on palm leaves, linden bast, linen fabrics and even on lead scrolls. However, papyrus remained the main material. Later, in Rome and Greece, wooden tablets covered with wax or plastered began to be used. They were widely used in schools. Old text on wax could be wiped off and a new one applied. If the texts were long and placed on several tablets, they were linked. Thus, a bundle was obtained, which was called the code. It was similar to the books we know, which were also called codices, when they began to write on parchment.

In the ancient world, literacy was quite common. The need for literate people became especially acute in the Roman Empire. Fragile papyrus could not suit the government authorities and lovers of reading: the life span of papyrus scrolls is about 200 years. However, the fragility of papyrus had to put up with for a long time. In Greece already in the 5th century. BC. a book trade arose (a library was first called a bookstore). Personal libraries also appeared, for example, those of the great philosophers Plato and Aristotle. The texts were different; among them are philosophical and generally scientific works, poems, epic works, recordings of tragedies and comedies, etc. In the III century. BC. the most famous library of antiquity arose - Alexandria in Egypt. VI century. BC. it contained about 700,000 scrolls.

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In the 1st century BC. public libraries, organized according to the principle that has survived to this day: with catalogs, librarians, a repository where readers are not allowed, appeared in Rome. Books needed to be published. Since errors crept into the texts during correspondence, they began to be checked, editors and proofreaders appeared, as in modern publishing houses.

Finally, the ancient world found a new durable material - parchment (after the name of the city of Pergamum in Asia Minor, where it was produced). Parchment was made from sheep, calf, goat and even cat skins. The material was durable, but a whole herd could go to the production of one book. Sheets could be folded and sewn together. They wrote on parchment already on both sides and not only with reed sticks, but also with bird feathers. The stitched sheets formed a codex. These codices began to supplant papyrus scrolls, and in the Roman Empire, in the libraries of the nobility, scrolls from the 3rd century. AD no longer held. Parchment notebooks were used in schools.

Parchment books were made very carefully and decorated. The sheets were painted in purple or black, the letters were silver and gold. The traditions of making parchment books-codes were later inherited by Byzantium and medieval European states.

In China, the first recordings were made on hard materials; the first "books" are wooden or bamboo planks connected in bundles. From the 5th-4th centuries. BC. in China they began to write on silk - a fabric that was highly valued in Europe.

The need for reproduction of texts was growing, and the possibilities of scribes were limited. And from the VI-V centuries. BC. in Chinese monasteries they began to carve relief texts and icons in mirror image from wood. Having smeared them with paint, it was possible to obtain a large number of prints.

There was no such convenient raw material as papyrus in China. Here they began to experiment with what we now call "recycled materials" - rags. Hemp fiber and tree bark were added to it, kneaded in vats, and the resulting mass was passed through rectangular sieves. A layer remained on the sieves, which after processing became a sheet of paper. In the IV century. An imperial decree was issued stating that paper was becoming a commonly used material.

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In China in the V-Vni centuries. AD they also made impressions from inscriptions and images on stone, which were very much appreciated; to get them, the relief parts were covered with paint and sheets of paper were applied to them. So it was possible to obtain the required number of prints.

Mirrored texts and images were carved on wooden boards. The board was smeared with paint. The resulting prints were mounted first in a scroll, and then they began to fold like a screen. Later we realized that it is much more convenient to glue the sheets from the outside; in the XIV-XV centuries. they were stitched.

Much more convenient than a solid board with text are separate signs from which different texts can be composed. The first to think of this was in the 11th century. blacksmith Pi Shen. Maybe he came up with this when he was working with compound molds. He suggested typing the text from clay signs placed in a special frame. In the XIII century. such signs - letters - began to be made of tin and wood, and in Korea - of copper.

All these inventions were not accidentally made in China: science has always been revered here. According to legend, from the VI-V centuries. BC. There were libraries in China. Scientists compiled encyclopedias. One of the first encyclopedias dates back to the 10th century. In the XV century. 2169 scientists have created an encyclopedia of 11,915 volumes. There were even periodicals in China: in the 7th-10th centuries. published the newspaper "Stolichnye Vedomosti".

In Europe, with the fall of the Roman Empire, libraries perished. But literate people were very much needed by the rulers of the new states. Books were needed by the church. Monasteries became the centers of book culture in medieval Europe, where liturgical books were copied and experts in ancient texts could detect scribal errors. Plenty of liturgical books were needed. In the workshops for copying books (scriptoria), some monks put lines of lines on parchment sheets, others wrote in neat, even handwriting. The artists decorated the manuscripts with ornaments and miniatures. The bindings were made of wood and covered with leather or fabrics, sometimes beautiful pieces of metal and precious stones were inserted into them. The books were real works of art. The material was still parchment, sometimes dyed purple. They wrote with reed sticks, bird feathers, and occasionally with metal pens. The ink was black, red, sometimes blue, yellow, purple.

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The books were very expensive. In Spain, once for a collection of sermons received 200 sheep, 3 barrels of grain and 3 marten skins. Two calves were given for a school textbook.

Literacy was valued more and more. Artisans and merchants tried to teach their children to read and write. Noble people were often highly educated. There were libraries in Italy during the Renaissance.

Paper came to Europe from the Arabs. It is believed that they borrowed the method of its manufacture from the Chinese. The Arabs ground hemp and other ingredients on millstones. In Damascus and Cairo, entire streets were inhabited by craftsmen who made paper of various grades, including the finest for pigeon mail. The Arabs borrowed from the Chinese and the method of printing from carved boards. The cheapness of the material made it possible to produce many more books than was possible before. For example, only in Cordoba, in Spain, 16-18 thousand books were published annually.

In Russia, books appeared with the adoption of Christianity. Kiev princes invited scribes and translators. They also wrote on parchment. Novgorodians wrote letters to each other on birch bark. Their children learned to write by scratching letters on its white surface. Birch bark was also used later. Information has been preserved that Sergius of Radonezh, the founder of the Trinity Monastery, was so poor that the books in his monastery were birch bark.

The oldest Russian parchment book is the Gospel of the 11th century, written for the Novgorod posadnik Ostromir. It is decorated with miniatures and ornaments. At that time in Russia, books were mainly of a religious content: the Gospels, psalters, "selections", which included fragments of scripture, sayings of the sages, information about history, articles on logic, oratory. Included in such "selections" and excerpts from the writings of ancient philosophers, preserved in Byzantium.

Books have been in the making for a very long time. The Ostromir Gospel was written for about seven months, one and a half pages a day. Parchment before the 15th century. brought from

Greece and from the West. They made their own, but it was of low quality. The oldest record on paper and a paper book date back to the 14th century. Paper was first received from the East, then from Europe. It was expensive, but still cheaper than parchment.

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In the XIV-XV centuries. in Europe, the production of books went beyond the walls of monasteries. Now artisans were engaged in this, and merchants traded books. Education became more secular, interest in the exact sciences increased. Books were no longer so expensive: in the middle of the XIII century. paper began to be made in Italy in the 14th century. in France, then in Germany, England. In Holland, windmills were used to make it.

In the middle of the XV century. cheap books spread throughout Western Europe. They were printed on paper sheets from whole wooden matrix forms.

And finally, Gutenberg, a jeweler, engraver, stone carver, invented printing. He was the first to use movable type, although it is believed that he had predecessors in Europe.

Metal type letters were cast from an alloy dominated by lead. They were placed in a type-setting cash desk, from where the typesetter took the necessary ones and selected a line in a special frame. The line was laid out on a typesetting board. The set for the page was wrapped with a harsh thread so that it would not move apart, and smeared with printing ink from soot and linseed oil (linseed oil). A framed sheet of moistened paper was placed on top of the set. After drying the sheet, an imprint of the text of the reverse side was made on it. The printing press was manual. The finished sheets were smoothed under pressure, folded into piles, leveled and bound.

The first Gutenberg books appeared in Germany in the 1540s. The ground for this invention was prepared: by the end of 1500, books were already being published in 200-300 European cities, where 1100-1700 printing houses operated. They printed 35-45 thousand editions, and their total circulation could reach 20 million. In the first 50 years of printing, mankind received more books than hundreds of years before.

In the XV century. printing spread throughout Europe. In Eastern Europe, one of the first figures in book printing was Francysk Skaryna. He knew the Church Slavonic language well, studied at several universities in Europe and was inspired by the ideas of enlightening the people. Slavic books were printed in Venice already in the 15th century. Skaryna apparently received equipment and paper from Germany. He worked in Prague, then in Vilnius, published liturgical books, and not only for churches, but also for home reading. His books in the XVI-XVU centuries. were widely known in Belarus and Ukraine, but in Moscow they were met unfriendly, because they were too different from the usual handwritten ones.

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In Russia, a handwritten book existed until the end of the 15th century. The literacy rate of the upper strata of society and the clergy remained low. Creation of huge chronicles and collections of the lives of saints in the 16th century. helped little. It was necessary to organize schools and distribute liturgical books throughout the vast expanses of the country. In the era of Ivan the Terrible, the first printed books appeared in Moscow. In 1564, the Russian pioneer Ivan Fedorov and his assistant Peter Mstislavets printed the Apostle. A year later, they published The Clockwork, a collection of daily prayers that also served as a literacy tool. Their activities in Moscow did not last long: because of persecution, they left for Lithuania, where they continued to print liturgical books. In Lvov, Ivan Fedorov published the first Russian secular book - "Grammar", a kind of textbook of Greek and Church Slavonic languages. With the departure of Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets from Moscow, the printing of books did not stop. Before the Time of Troubles, at least 33 titles were published in Moscow with a total circulation of about 33,000 copies.

Until the 19th century books were printed on a manual machine, the technology differed little from that proposed in the 15th century. The industrial revolution of the last century also changed the printing industry. The printing industry, printing, typesetting, bookbinding machines, various methods of reproduction, printing illustrations in color appeared. Books are available to everyone.

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Since ancient times, people began to exchange a variety of items. Gradually it turned out that it was much more convenient to establish a general equivalent value of a wide variety of goods. For different peoples, it could be cattle, or beautiful sea shells, or products made of metal and stone, fur. However, something universal, durable and convenient was needed, which did not take up much space and at the same time was quite valuable.

Already in the II millennium BC. in ancient Egypt, gold rings are used as money, and in the countries of the Aegean basin, copper ingots shaped like an ox skin are used.

The invention of a coin - a piece of metal of a certain weight with certifying images or inscriptions - took place almost simultaneously (in the first half of the 7th century BC) in two neighboring regions of the Aegean - on the western coast of Asia Minor (in the Lydian kingdom) and in Greece (on the island of Aegina, which lies between the Peloponnesian Peninsula and Attica). This innovation, which quickly proved its extraordinary usefulness, was appreciated. In ancient times, the minting and casting of coins gradually spread over a vast area from Spain and Britain to India.

Quite independently of Europe, cast copper coins appeared in China, where their traditional form (a flat circle with a square hole in the center, around which hieroglyphs were placed) was preserved until the beginning of this century.

The plots of images on the coins of numerous ancient Greek city-states (polises) are extremely diverse. Coin issues (issues) with “speaking emblems”, peculiar rebuses are curious: a seal (in Greek “foke”) is placed on the coins of Phocaea, Leknti-na - a lion (“leon”), Rhodes - a rose (“radon”), Seli -nunta - celery ("selinon"), etc. The uniformity of types of coins (gold, silver and copper) is typical for the coinage of the Hellenistic kings and Roman emperors. The main thing then becomes the image of the ruler, accompanied by his name and title.

The Greek word "nomisma" had several meanings in antiquity. Initially, it is “an established custom, social order, an established tradition, a legal norm.” Two other meanings are derived from the first: “full measure, legal norm” (in relation to the system of measures and weights) and “coin” (as a unit of value, a metal banknote). In the form of "numism", the term passed into the Latin language and then served as the basis for the name of the science that studies coins - "numismatics". Numismatists also took from Latin the two most common terms they use - “obverse” and “reverse”, i.e. obverse and reverse sides of the coin circle.

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Even ancient researchers tried to use coins as arguments in their discussions. Thus, the Greek authors Plutarch (I-II centuries AD) and Pausanias (II century AD) compared the legends about the distant past of several cities of Hellas (Athens, Troezen) with coin images. The Roman historian Flavius Vopiscus (III-IV centuries) reports a completely scientific dispute between educated lovers of antiquity, which was resolved as soon as one of them presented numismatic evidence.

However, only at the beginning of the Renaissance there was a serious interest in collecting and studying ancient coins. Their passionate collector was, for example, the great Italian humanist poet Francesco Petrarca (1304-1374). Representatives of the Renaissance culture - artists and writers, scientists and politicians - valued Greek and Roman coins primarily as perfect examples of ancient art and authentic evidence of the existence of real historical characters, kings and emperors, magnificent illustrations for the works of historians of antiquity.

The formation of numismatics as a science that provides the researcher with a whole range of various data, including information about the state of the economy of an entire state or a separate region (like a snapshot of monetary circulation), occurs in the 18th-19th centuries. Following the ancient one, then medieval numismatics - European and Eastern - makes its first successes.

Numismatists can tell a lot not only about the economy and political life of various countries and peoples of the world, but also about their culture and religion.

Enormo information, in particular, coins provide about the deities revered in ancient Hellas, in Greek colonies, scattered in many along the shores of the Mediterranean and Black Seas, as well as in other centers of the ancient world. After all, images of the celestials themselves, their statues and individual attributes of gods, temples, mountain sanctuaries, even entire mythological scenes with the participation of several characters very often appeared on coin stamps from the 6th century BC. BC. according to the III century. AD

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Since the establishment of the principate of Augustus (29 BC), the main place in monetary typology has been given to the person of the ruling emperor and members of his family. Their portraits are the most frequent numismatic plot of that era.

With the adoption of Christianity, the coin typology includes elements of new religious symbols.

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD. the former typological tradition was preserved in Byzantium for a long time. It was also inherited by the "barbarian" states emerging on the former Roman lands of Western Europe.

In the Middle Ages in European countries, in addition to the portrait of the ruler (most often very conditional), images of Christ, the Mother of God and Christian saints appeared on coins. Gradually, heraldic figures begin to be used. And over time, the family or state emblem becomes one of the most frequent elements of coin types and remains so to this day.

The development of coin typology in the East proceeded in other ways. According to the Chinese model, they were made out until the 19th century. cast metal money in Korea, Japan, Vietnam and some other countries of Southeast Asia. In the Islamic world, money circulation began with the assimilation of the old ancient traditions preserved by Byzantium. It is characteristic that the names of gold, silver and copper coins were borrowed in early Muslim times from Greco-Roman terminology: "dinar" - from the Latin "denarius"; "dirhem" (in India "draima") - from the Greek "drachme"; "fels" or "fulus" (in the Turkic languages - "pool") - from the Latin "follis".

Although on the coins of Islamic countries there are images of animals, less often of a person, on the whole, the ornamental-calligraphic principle undoubtedly prevails. The inscriptions always carry the main semantic load. Their content, as a rule, is similar: a symbol of faith (“There is no God but Allah, Muhammad is the prophet of Allah”, to which the followers of the Shiite direction in Islam add the words “Ali is the vicar of Allah”), famous quotes from the Koran, listing the names of the first four ("righteous") caliphs or twelve imams (recognized by Shiites), the denomination of the coin, the place and date of minting, the name and title of the ruler (sometimes two or even three persons standing at different levels of a single hierarchical ladder, for example, caliph, sultan and emir) . Sometimes Arabographic coin inscriptions (the so-called legends) are found even in poetic form.

Thus, Muslim coins are an extremely important source on the history of the East in the Middle Ages. In the XX century. metal banknotes of most Islamic states in their appearance are close to European ones, which were taken as a model even earlier when establishing coinage in the countries of the New World.

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Medieval people treated artists with a mixture of admiration and distrust. Some suspicion was caused by the fact that the singer, and the storyteller, and the amusing man in the marketplace - they were all "actors", i.e. represented in the faces of other people; they seemed to replace their characters with themselves, refusing their own face and putting on other people's "masks".

According to medieval ideas, the profession of an artist was akin to the Devil - a pretender and a deceiver. Therefore, the church advised believers to stay away from artists and musicians: priests were forbidden to share a meal with them, and it was better for ordinary Christians to watch only those theatrical performances that depicted events from the life of Jesus Christ, the Mother of God or the apostles. The church considered street singers to be people who had "lost their way", and promised them eternal torment in the next world.

But the townspeople, the peasant and the knight had not so much entertainment, so the appearance of a magician in the city square, a singer and a poet in the knight's castle always became a holiday. The life of a medieval person went basically on a monotonous path, laid down by fathers and grandfathers; each new face was a curiosity, it became a window open to a wide world. And if the stranger knew the legends about King Arthur and his knights, about the valiant Roland and the heroes of the Crusades, the city square generously poured silver and copper coins into his hat, and the knight gave shelter at his hearth for several evenings.

Troubadours were especially famous - poets who performed their poems to musical accompaniment. Basically, they led a wandering life, moving from the court of one noble lord to another. The heyday of the art of troubadours came in southern France in the XII-XIII centuries. The origin of the word "troubadour" is not at all connected with the pipe, as you might think, but with the old French word "trobe", meaning "skillful reception", "special grace". Indeed, many troubadours were able to compose beautiful songs, elegant, with complex rhymes and rich wordplay. Among the troubadours there were many knights, people of noble birth; one of the best poet-knights was Duke Guillaume of Aquitaine. The poems of the troubadours, who sang the selfless service of a knight to his chosen lady of the heart, quickly became fashionable. It is not surprising that women liked them very much; noble ladies began to demand from their fans the behavior described in poetry. The knight, who knew only how to swing his sword, was now the subject of ridicule; gentlemen were dear to the ladies, who knew how to express their feelings in words and secret signs, able to understand the secrets of the female heart. The poetry of the troubadours had an exceptionally great influence on the formation of a special chivalric culture, which spread widely in Europe one or two centuries later.

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The poetic finds of the troubadours were widely adopted and used by simpler singers who performed the so-called “gestures” (poetic stories about the heroes of bygone times) in the city squares. Often they accompanied their performances with circus numbers: juggling, tricks, showing trained animals (medieval onlookers were especially fond of looking at monkeys - it was believed that God created a monkey as a mirror for a person, so that a person peered into this mirror and saw in it his sinfulness, the baseness of his nature ). Such artists were called jugglers; later this word came into circus usage in a much narrower sense.

We remembered the circus not by chance - another kind of medieval artists is very reminiscent of modern circus clowns. These are jesters, or buffoons, as they were called in Italy. The clown, however, amuses the entire audience gathered in the circus, and the buffoons tried to cling to noble seigneurs or even kings, receiving food, clothes and a roof over their heads from them. The jesters mocked everything that even slightly went beyond the usual and permissible; they could turn a man wearing an unusual hat or looking too pompous, a miser, a collector of ancient coins, or a jealous husband, into a white heat. Often the seigneur himself became the subject of ridicule of the buffon. The rules of good manners required the seigneur to treat such attacks with a smile, but this was far from always possible. The mockery of the buffoons over the young seigneur, the ruler of the Italian city of Ferrara, whose mother was a simple laundress, forced him to give the order to kill his own mother. Buffons often pitted noble gentlemen against each other, after which blood was shed on the streets of cities. At the same time, the buffoons' wit, the unexpectedness of their antics, and the deep meaning of their jokes made jesters desirable members of the nobility's youth. One of the Italian "entertainers" of the XIV century. stated: “Yes, there are such jesters who scoff, mock and act outrageously with words and body movements; they corrupt manners and all good customs; they are miserable parasites, shameless and immoral, who must be beaten, drowned and survived. But there are others who look like wonderful scientists who seek to entertain the seniors and amuse them. They are cultured, "court" people, noble lords should accept and listen to them.

The person who uttered these words was cunning: it turned out that there are artists who sold their souls to the Devil, and there are others who are pleasing to the Lord and do not violate his precepts. Troubadours, jugglers and jesters did not serve either God or the Devil - they embodied the eternal inclination of man to creativity and play.

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In the Middle Ages, there were many people who were born on the side of the road and ended their lives there. However, not all of them were "tramps" in our modern sense of the word. Artisans moved from city to city in search of work, preachers were looking for new listeners, students themselves wanted to listen to the lectures of famous professors. But the ordinary need also drove people out onto the roads: women, children and the elderly left without a breadwinner left their homes and wandered around the surrounding towns and villages, earning their living by begging, and even by theft.

Vagrancy had a rather decent appearance in the Middle Ages, because wanderers visited the most famous temples and monasteries, worshiped holy relics. Such pilgrims were called pilgrims or pilgrims. It was believed that the prayers of the poor reach the Lord best, and many pious people asked the pilgrims to pray for them in the temple; for this, the wanderer received from the hosts who sheltered him a small coin or a piece of bread. Medieval stories and stories about the lives of saints often show us hospitable and trusting hosts welcoming a wandering pilgrim.

The attitude towards the destitute, sick and wretched in medieval Europe was generally quite tolerant. Kings, rich monasteries and cities allocated money for the maintenance of shelters for the elderly and orphans, hospitals for the poor, inns for pilgrims; handed out money to them near the churches. “Our city beggars” (as they were called in city documents) were even united in some kind of workshop; this workshop was headed by a foreman elected by the poor themselves, with whom the city authorities discussed all matters relating to the collection of alms.

The beggars and vagabonds were not yet looked upon as strangers, separated by a sharp line from "decent people" and dangerous to society. Disease, crop failure, ruin, death of relatives, which drove a person into the open sky, threatened everyone. When Shakespeare gave his King Lear the appearance of a beggar vagabond, this picture did not arouse astonishment among the theater audience. Medieval man found attractive features even in forest robbers, endowing them with nobility, justice, and special concern for the poor. These features were most clearly manifested in the beloved hero of English legends, Robin, nicknamed "Kind" (in English - "Good") from Sherwood Forest. Robin becomes a robber not of his own free will, but even in the forest he remains a more worthy member of society than his opponents - knights and sheriffs.

But from about 1450-1500. tolerance for begging and vagrancy for various reasons decreases. In England and the Netherlands, after the victory of Protestantism over traditional Catholicism, begging ceased to be a respected occupation: it was believed that every person was obliged to earn a living on his own - in this way he fulfilled his duty to God. Many Catholic states experienced in the XVI-XVII centuries. serious economic difficulties and could not allocate large funds for the maintenance of the disadvantaged. But the main reason, apparently, was something else: the wide spread of hired labor in Europe during the late Middle Ages now made it possible for people who were not part of the workshop, the rural community, deprived of a family, to feed themselves. Crowds of vagabonds on the roads irritated the new capitalist entrepreneurs more and more; they were no longer seen as a semblance of a beggarly Christ, but as cheap labor, which should have been put to work.

Cities begin to close their gates to the surrounding ragamuffins, punishing them for illegally collecting alms on the city streets. Violation of the laws on begging was severely punished: in Cologne, for example, a tramp caught three times illegally begging, who was not included in the established number of "our city beggars", ended his life on the gallows. The city authorities dealt with this dangerous public without any ceremony, but the royal authorities behaved even more harshly towards them. In the XVI century. the English kings issued a whole series of laws against vagabonds, which the people called "bloody." According to these laws, anyone could capture vagrants on the roads and put them to work. Several times a tramp who was caught and escaped was stigmatized as a criminal.

The more severe European society became towards its outcasts, the more people went into the forests or mountains and engaged in robbery. Robber in the XVI-XVIII centuries. - this is no longer the kind and noble Robin Hood> punishing the greedy rich and helping the poor. On the contrary, this is a man angry with everything and everyone, cruel and treacherous, robbing and killing indiscriminately - Gangs of such robbers kept entire regions in fear for decades, and local authorities could not cope with them. Such organized crime was especially strong in the poorest areas of Europe - in Sicily, in southern Italy. Even at the end of the XVIII century. a trip to Sicily was associated with considerable danger - a curious traveler made a will in advance and made the necessary arrangements in case of his death.

Since the end of the Middle Ages, vagabonds and robbers have been separated by a sharp line from respectable burghers. A well-fed, rich Europe sees in every person deprived of a roof over his head and a reliable income, his enemy and, if not today's, then tomorrow's criminal.

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A damp, dark dungeon... Slightly trembling light outlines gloomy figures in black, instruments of torture and the crouching figure of an exhausted half-dressed woman. She is accused of conspiring with the Devil, of participating in a night gathering of witches. First, the poor thing denies her guilt, tries to defend herself, begs for mercy. But the judges are adamant. The executioner takes over the job - a proven master of his craft. After sophisticated torture, the mindless, exhausted victim is ready to confirm anything. Yes, she flew through the air on a broomstick, caused the recent hail that destroyed the crop, signed an agreement with Satan with her own blood ... One of the tormentors solemnly announces the verdict: burning at the stake will take place tomorrow, with a large gathering of people. Let people see - there will be one less cursed witch ...

This is how witch trials took place - trials on charges of witchcraft, an ugly phenomenon of the end of the Middle Ages - the beginning of the New Age.

Witchcraft is “knowledge”, the imaginary ability of a person to influence the world around him in supernatural ways: natural elements, other people, animals, inanimate objects. It is as old as the world. According to legend, special people who have entered into an alliance with the Devil himself and received extraordinary power from him have magical knowledge. Rumor, having related witches with evil spirits, endowed them with the ability to penetrate through locked doors and fly through the air, bringing good or evil to people. Women who knew the healing properties of plants and treated the sick with herbs were also called witches.

At the dawn of the Middle Ages, church authorities recognized the existence of witchcraft and considered it a dangerous, diabolical occupation. But to judge, moreover, by a secular court, only sorcerers who caused real harm to people were required, as soon as this could be proven.

Indeed, the early Middle Ages were for witches "paradise time." The church authorities did not yet care about the dubious intrigues of the village healers. The secular authorities were equally indifferent to them, limiting themselves to a warning: folk tales about witches are madness. So, in 643, the Lombard king Rotar by his edict (a particularly important decree) directly forbade Christians to believe that women can be vampires and suck the blood of living people. And the king of the Franks, the future emperor Charlemagne, in 787, by his capitulary (law), established the death penalty as a punishment for those who, on the basis of such a faith, seek out and kill imaginary sorcerers. While the main task of the rulers was the spread of Christianity, the old beliefs were preferred to be thrown aside in order to drive people away from the former gods.

Ведовских процессов раннего средневековья известно немного. В основном они касались представителей феодальной элиты и протекали на фоне борьбы за власть и богатство. К примеру, король Франкского государства Людовик Благочестивый (814—840 гг.) неожиданно увлёкся некоей красавицей Юдифью и женился на ней. Юдифь уговорила Людовика разделить уже распределённые части империи в ущерб его старшим сыновьям, родившимся от первого брака. В дело вмешалось духовенство, заступившееся за «пострадавших». Оно объяснило увлечение Людовика колдовскими чарами Юдифи, которая якобы устроила во дворце притон для ворожей и ведьм. Людовику пришлось уступить.

Когда в Х1П в. христианство прочно укоренилось, а старые боги и их служители превратились в приспешников Сатаны, богословы и схоласты дружно взялись за теоретическую разработку вопросов демонологии. В их трудах Дьявол по силе и могуществу «догоняет» Бога. Он вездесущ, бесконечно опасен, а воинство его несметно. Он подбивает человека на продажу души, закабаляет его, заставив подписать договор.

Сатана сделался всесильным, и ничто не могло защитить от него, кроме веры и церкви. И если раньше церковь несла в себе прежде всего веру в Бога, то теперь она начала отбиваться от слуг Дьявола. Инквизиция, с успехом боровшаяся с еретиками, увидела новые жертвы. Оказывается, чудеса можно было творить не только именем Бога, но и именами старых богов — слуг Сатаны. Чудесами занимались ведьмы, значит, они и покушались на веру в Слово Божие и могущество святой церкви.

Ведьмы встали в один ряд с еретиками. Костры, на которых сжигали «мастериц порчи и сглаза», запылали то здесь, то там. Папа римский Иннокентий VIII разразился в 1484 г. специальной буллой (посланием) «С величайшим рвением». В ней первосвященник призвал искоренять ведовство и объявил неверие в дьявольскую вредность ведьм ересью. Папа также потребовал от властей Германии помощи рыскающим по этой стране в поисках ведьм инквизиторам — Генриху Инститорису и Якову Шпренгеру. Папское внимание воодушевило названных «ведьмоискате-лей». Через три года йнститорис и Шпренгер нанесли «служанкам Сатаны» решающий удар. Они опубликовали знаменитое сочинение «Молот против ведьм» («Молот ведьм»), которое стало «настольной книгой» для организаторов судебных процессов о ведовстве.

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XVI-XVII centuries. — the height of the witch hunt. They are judged by secular, episcopal and inquisitorial courts. Evidence is not required to start a trial, an unfounded accusation of witchcraft is enough, for example, complaints from neighbors about harm allegedly caused by the witchcraft of a certain person. The illness or death of a child, the loss of milk from a cow, a crop failure, the disappearance of any item in the household, even an unkind look from behind a neighboring fence or beauty - all this and much more could cause a fatal libel.

The judges had numerous questions for the "witch" in advance. To confuse a woman frightened to death, to extract from her a confession of incredible crimes, was not a big deal. The most serious crime was participation in the Sabbath - a night gathering of evil spirits, where witches flew in the air to report to Satan about their mischief.

The judges had no doubt that the "sorceress" flew to the Sabbath with her accomplices, and they all made a pact with the Devil. The confession of this had to be wrested from the accused by any means. If before the XVI century. Since the use of torture was prohibited, now it has become the most important means of "processing" the defendants in witch trials.

The judges were unfamiliar with pity for a woman in whom the church traditionally saw a "vessel of evil." Already at the first interrogations, the executioner intimidated the “witch”, showing her the instruments of torture. Often this already forced the unfortunate to slander themselves. Otherwise, their hands were tied behind their backs and hung up, and a weight was tied to their feet, which was gradually increased. The witch could have been exposed in other ways. A specially invited doctor searched with a needle for places on the defendant's body that were insensitive to pain - traces of the touch of the devil's clawed paw. A woman could be tested with water - bound, thrown into the river. The witch could not drown, because. it was believed that water does not take witches. Bats, black cats and other "satanic creatures" become constant companions of witches. The judges explained the perseverance of the courageous woman with the boundless power of the Devil. In exchange for recognition, they promised the end of torment and life. But such promises were rarely kept. The exposed witch was burned, but before that, the names of her accomplices were elicited from her, so that the lack of work did not threaten judges and executioners. The number of reprisals against witches grew like a snowball, denunciations fell one after another. According to the figurative expression of the remarkable French historian Febvre, dozens of new witches grew from the scattered ashes of the burnt witch, like from seeds. For two centuries the fires burned without ceasing. Acrid smoke from them spread in Germany, France, Switzerland, Spain ... In the small German town of Osnabrück, 121 witches were burned in three months in 1585, in 20 villages in the vicinity of Trier from 1587 to 1593 306 people burned down.

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Together with immigrants from Europe, witch hysteria spread to the New World, where witchcraft was considered a crime more serious than arson or murder. The provincial American town of Salem, located on the coast of Massachusetts Bay, has gained worldwide fame. From January to October 1692, a monstrous trial of witches dragged on here. The main inspirers of this incredible action were two girls: 9-year-old Betty Parris and 11-year-old Abigail Williams. Salem pastor Samuel Parris raised his daughter and niece very strictly. Only reading books about witchcraft, of which there were many in the house, brought variety to the dull life of girls. The disease that modern medicine calls "teenage hysteria" crept up suddenly. The girls began to convulse, crying and laughing. The doctor could not help, and one of those around him remembered the intrigues of evil spirits. The gruesome suggestion of the older Betty and Abigail was greeted with delight. Violent fantasy nourished read in demonological treatises. The disease turned into a game for girls and a tragedy for the townspeople. The girls said that they were being tormented by the Devil, and during their seizures they began to name his other accomplices. Among them flashed the names of respected and wealthy residents of Salem, who were somehow unsympathetic to the "martyrs" or did not please their father. Judgment awaited those exposed in this way...

During the 10 months of this madness, 14 women and 5 men were hanged, 4 women died in prison and one went mad. When the new authorities finally stopped the absurd process, 150 “witches” were languishing in the prison of a small town, and 200 were waiting for their turn.

Vedic trials were by no means only the work of the authorities. Trials were often held after the insistent demands of the population, thirsting for reprisals against witches.

The fight against witches also had a material side. Part of the confiscated property of the witch went to the scammer, officials and executioners received good salaries. Witch hunting was a very lucrative business.

The wave of persecution began to subside only in the 18th century, when entire areas were depopulated. How could this "collective madness" develop? It cannot be explained either by the strange researches of theologians, or by the malice of the authorities, or by the ignorance of the people, taken separately. Only an analysis of all the circumstances of the era helps to get closer to the solution. Frequent epidemics, long wars, debilitating famine exhausted people, it was increasingly difficult to count on the help of neighbors within the village community. This gave rise to fears, a desire to find the culprit of disasters. And there has always been such an enemy.

The witch trials were the massacre of the innocent and were one of the most dramatic pages in human history.

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King Edward III of England was furious. The throne of France, free after the death in 1328 of Charles IV, the last son of Philip IV the Handsome, did not go to him. The French lords did not want to see an Englishman as their ruler, even the grandson of Philip IV, and preferred Philip of Valois, one of the relatives of the Capetian dynasty, to him. And then Edward III decided to do on paper what he could not achieve in practice. He changed his coat of arms: now, next to the grinning English leopards, the field of the shield was decorated with delicate French lilies. This meant that not only England was subordinate to Edward, but also France, for which he would henceforth fight. It was audacity even for a king. And that was the reason for the war.

In fact, the war has been brewing for a very long time. The reason for it was, of course, not the lilies and leopards in the coat of arms of England, but the old dispute between the two states. Back in the 20th century part of the lands in the south-west of France became the possession of the English king. By the XIV century. this territory was greatly reduced, but the area of Guillain continued to be the subject of a dispute between the two kingdoms. Guyenne was closely connected with England by trade, and local lords, wanting to maintain their independence, agreed to be listed as subjects of the distant English king rather than submit to the real power of the French. They were on the side of England even when the rest of France was at war with her. Therefore, it turned out that the struggle of the French for Guyenne became at the same time the struggle for the unification of the French kingdom. The second - the stumbling block" of the two countries was the rich Flanders, on which both France and England had long had views. In addition, in making claims, the English king consoled himself with the thought of the possibility of getting France under his scepter and thus becoming the lord of two crowns. The French people were in danger of losing their state independence.

In 1337, in the north of France, the British launched their victorious offensive. Off the coast of Flanders, in the Battle of Slea (1340), they inflicted a heavy defeat on the French fleet, achieved dominance at sea, and landed troops in Normandy. However, the first real trouble hit the French later: on August 26, 1346, at the Battle of Cressy in the north of Picardy, the army of Edward III utterly defeated the army of the French king Philip VI. This victory allowed the British, having broken the 11-month heroic resistance of the defenders, to take an important strategic point - the fortress-port of Calais. True, the British still could not develop an offensive in the north, and in 1347 they concluded a truce that lasted eight years. It was short-lived, but still calm.

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In 1422, unexpectedly, in the prime of life, Henry V died, and a few months later the same fate befell Charles VI. Regardless of the terms of the treaty, the Dauphin Charles proclaimed himself King Charles VII. The British and the Duke of Burgundy recognized the 10-month-old Henry VI as king, for whom his uncle, the Duke of Bedford, began to rule. For France, a new stage of the war began - for independence. In the occupied lands, the British behaved as the conquerors should: ruining the population and brutally cracking down on the recalcitrant. In addition, during his lifetime, Henry V began to distribute the newly conquered lands of the French seigneurs to the English barons, and settled some ports in Normandy with the British. Exiled from their native land, the French had only one thing left to do - win or die.

The French people responded to the oppression of the conquerors with a guerrilla war. It reached a special scope when the Duke of Bedford began to brutally devastate the conquered territories. Soon the partisans achieved that the British risked leaving the fortresses only in large detachments, or even preferred to sit out in the citadels. In the cities they captured, secret ties were established with Charles VII, and conspiracies against the invaders were uncovered in Paris and Rouen. The British were in a difficult position: they hardly controlled the occupied territory, from which it was no longer possible to obtain funds to fight the partisans. Under these conditions, Bedford decided to improve things by capturing new, unspoilt areas of France. So, they planned the capture of Orleans. In 1428, the city was besieged by English troops. Orleans was considered a first-class fortress, and it was not easy to take it, but if this happened, the road to the south of France would open. Orleans had to endure. At this very time, when the fate of France was being decided, a strange young peasant woman appeared in the city of Tire on the Loire, where Charles VII was, who was already called by the people the Virgin, sent down by the Lord to save unfortunate France. The girl's name was Jeanne d'Arc. She managed to convince the king to give her an army. At the end of April 1429, Jeanne arrived with an army to the besieged Orleans. For four days the French fought for the fortifications under the city, and on May 8 the siege was finally lifted, which was the first great victory after almost a hundred years of defeat and grief. Having liberated the fortresses on the Loire, Jeanne insisted that Charles VII go to Reims, where French kings have been crowned for centuries. After the solemn coronation in the eyes of his people and all of Europe, Charles VII turned from a humiliated dauphin into the only legitimate ruler of France. Soon Champagne was liberated, an attempt was made, though unsuccessful, to take Paris by storm. In 1430, having arrived to the aid of Compiègne, besieged by the Burgundians, Jeanne d'Arc was captured and was extradited for 10 thousand gold pieces to the British, and a year later she died at the stake. Charles VII, - grateful, ”like most kings, acting primarily in their own interests, did nothing to help the girl to whom he owed the crown.

But the work begun by Joan of Arc did not perish. The French army was victorious. The king reformed the army: the lords were forbidden to have their own detachments, and the royal army became permanent and paid by the state through a system of state taxes. In 1435, the Duke of Burgundy, who unmistakably determined which side the force was on, made an alliance with Charles VII. Soon, under the pressure of the French, the British were forced to leave Normandy, Bordeaux, Paris. Only Calais remained in their hands (until 1558). In 1453 the war - so long and so painful for the French people - finally ended. It took 116 years to put an end to England's claim to the French throne and lands.

https://groups.google.com/g/all-andorra/c/K5r-H_T_GaQ

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Accompanied by her uncle, Jeanne arrived at the nearby fortress of Vaucouleurs and demanded from her commandant, Robert de Baudricourt, that he transport her to the royal castle of Chinon to the Dauphin. The cautious and distrustful de Baudricourt was outraged by the indefatigable claims of an illiterate peasant woman and sent Jeanne home. But Jeanne was not one of those who retreat after the first failure. The girl's resolve to fight for freedom only grew stronger. Jeanne's faith in success was so strong that others were infected with confidence in her special destiny. After the second meeting, the stern commandant of Vaucouleurs could not resist. He provided Jeanne with a small but reliable guard, and the admirers who had already appeared with her provided her with a horse, a knight's sword and a man's dress, so that it would be more convenient for her to ride and, most importantly, so as not to attract the attention of oncoming people. A small detachment, numbering only seven people, set off on a difficult path to Chinon in February 1429. On the eleventh day of the journey, Jeanne and her companions safely reached the castle, where the Dauphin King Charles lived in inactivity.

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