четверг, 9 декабря 2021 г.

News update 17/10/2021 20


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Jeder wusste, zu welchem ​​Clan-Stamm er gehörte und wo sich die Orte seiner einheimischen Nomaden befanden, er war sich sicher: Wenn Unglück passierte, Krankheit oder Alter kamen, würden die Angehörigen den Unglücklichen nicht verlassen, sie würden immer Nahrung und Unterkunft finden für ihn.

Fins i tot en temps molt remots, els fenicis van destacar entre els altres pobles pel desenvolupament de la seva navegació, però ells mateixos quasi no en van deixar constància directa, ni escrita ni material.

La informació més antiga ens va arribar a través dels egipcis, i després no en forma de proves escrites deixades per escriptors antics, sinó només gràcies a les produïdes a partir de mitjans del segle XIX. excavacions de monuments i lectura relacionada de jeroglífics.

Two and a half thousand years ago, the Iranian king Darius I ordered his servants to inscribe a long inscription on a high sheer rock, which is called Behistunskaya after the name of the neighboring village. It is impossible to read the inscription from below - 105 meters separate it from the ground. The first European travelers, in order to get acquainted with the inscription, were forced to use the help of dexterous Iranian boys, who reached the farthest corners of the 22-meter inscription and sketched the ancient letters.
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Solon was a cheerful and even frivolous person, according to the definition of his biographer Plutarch. He loved life and, having endured many failures and disappointments, he wrote: “Now Dionysus, Cyprida and the Muses have become dear to me - those whose amusements instill joy in people.” The enmity and hatred that flared up in society made him suffer too: “Yes, I understand, and grief sunk deep into my heart: I see how the former first country of the Inter-Ionian lands is bowing down.” He was close to the new people who had risen from the people, understood their needs, realized their strength. Therefore, unlike the aristocrats, who persisted in adherence to the old order, he was ready to contribute to the establishment of a new socio-political system and knew how to do it.
Then Solon, in order to raise the morale of the Athenians, ran out, pretending to be crazy, into the square and sang verses in which he called for the capture of Solomin. The poems made such a strong impression on the citizens of Athens that they immediately decided to start a war with the Megarians and appointed Solon as commander. The island was reconquered, and Solon gained considerable political authority. There is nothing strange in the fact that the performance of a madman was taken seriously by his compatriots: madness, the ancients believed, was from the gods. And in this case, the gods through Solon expressed their will. 

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Solon's actions characterize him as a rational person. Constantly referring to the authority of the gods, in worldly affairs he preferred to be guided by common sense. Proving the original belonging of Salamis to Athens, Solon was not afraid to open several graves on the island and show the Megarians that the dead were buried according to the custom of the Athenians. Moreover, he went on a frank forgery: using the authority in Greece of Homer's poems, he inserted into one of them a line proving Salamis's long-standing connection with Athens. Such tricks were not considered a vice at that time - on the contrary, they created a reputation for a person as a smart and subtle politician. Solon began to be invited to mediate in disputes between noble Athenian families. Respect and fame throughout Greece brought him a speech in defense of the Delphic temple of the god Apollo, whose land was seized by the inhabitants of the city of Kirra.
The reforms caused general bewilderment and irritation. Trying to explain to fellow citizens the meaning of the transformations, Solon again resorts to poetry. There are many bitter confessions in them: "... Having gathered all the courage to fight, I was like a wolf circling among a pack of dogs." And again: “Everyone once rejoiced, but now they always see me off with an evil look, as if I were their worst enemy.”
A mass of armed people flowed like an iron stream along the northern shore of the Aegean Sea throughout the spring and summer, until they entered the territory of Northern Greece. 

By that time, a coalition of Hellenic policies opposing the Persians had taken shape. The supreme leadership in it was given to Sparta, as having the most combat-ready land army. But no less important role was played in practice by Athens, which had the most significant naval forces. The initiator of the creation of a strong Athenian fleet was the most prominent politician and military leader Themistocles.

The attempt to achieve universal agreement failed. Not wanting to change anything in his laws, Solon leaves Athens and becomes a traveler again. He sails to Egypt, has conversations with the priests there, then goes to Cyprus and helps the local king to found a new city. Ancient authors wrote many stories about Solon's meetings with famous contemporaries. When visiting the capital of the Lydian kingdom - the city of Sardis - for example, he talked with the king Croesus, who went down in history, and taught him a lesson in Hellenic wisdom.

The transformation of Rome from a small, unknown peasant community into the ruler of all of Italy not only amazed his contemporaries, but also made the Romans themselves think about the reasons for their victories. The Romans explained them by the ideal political structure of their state and the superiority of their customs and customs over the customs of other peoples. They were sure that their city was specially created by the gods in order to conquer other peoples and establish their own order throughout the world. The Romans considered courage, endurance, diligence, adamant honesty and justice to be the highest virtues. An example of these virtues was such a hero as Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus, appointed during a difficult war with the Italic tribes of the Equi and Sabines in 458 BC. dictator. The Roman historian Titus of Livy tells that when the envoys of the Senate came to Cincinnatus, he was working on his small piece of land. Wiping off the dust and sweat and putting on a toga, he listened to the ambassadors and immediately set off for Rome. Having defeated the enemies and laid down his dictatorial powers, Cincinnatus again returned to his field (see Art. "Dictatorship").

It is clear that the inscription on the rock was not intended for human eyes. At the same time, Darius tells in it about events well known to the people of his country: how he became the king of Iran by killing the impostor Gaumata, who had seized the throne six months earlier. To whom did Darius want to tell about what had happened? Probably the gods and eternity. Obviously, the new king attached great importance to his victory over Gaumata and wanted to keep her memory forever. The supreme god of the Iranians, Ah-uramazda, is depicted on a stone illustration for an inscription with a raised right hand blessing Darius; with his left, he hands Darius a ring - a sign of royal power. Darius believed that the gods themselves elevated him to the throne, entrusting him with the task of saving and strengthening the state, and he was able to complete this task. The events described in the Behi-stun inscription really strongly influenced the course of the history of the Ancient World. Their origins, however, date back to much older times.

El mar amb aigua salada, segons les supersticioses creences egípcies, que prohibia menjar peix marí i sal marina, semblava ser el regne d'un esperit maligne (Tifó) i va inspirar horror, per tant, fins al regnat del més lliurepensador. faraó Psamètic (664-611 aC) El comerç marítim egipci era només passiu. D'altra banda, el Nil amb els seus braços, que servia com a via natural de comunicació, no va contribuir poc a que a Egipte, el país més antic culturalment, la navegació fluvial es desenvolupés molt aviat i a gran escala. Des de temps immemorials, a les lleres fluvials poc profundes s'utilitzaven les basses lleugeres amb els extrems elevats, constituïdes, per manca de fusta, per feixes de papir. S'alimentaven amb pals i servien per transportar persones i animals, fins i tot toros, i per lliurar mercaderies als mercats. Una de les imatges d'aquesta bassa es remunta al regnat de la VI dinastia (mitjans del III mil·lenni aC).

Al mateix temps, no s'ha d'exagerar la por dels egipcis al mar i subestimar els seus èxits en el camp de la construcció naval i la navegació. Els primers vaixells de fusta van aparèixer a Egipte al tombant del IV-III mil·lenni aC. e. Els egipcis ja tenien diversos tipus d'embarcacions força avançades tècnicament, com, per exemple, embarcacions de fons pla de 10-16 metres d'eslora que servien per al transport de persones, navegaven i remem. A falta d'espars prou resistents, en comptes d'un pal, s'utilitzaven cabres de dues potes amb un curt pati horitzontal, a les quals s'acoblava una vela alta estreta. A més de la vela, els rems lanceolats també servien per al moviment, de 8 a 26 per banda; Es feien servir de 2 a 5 rems per dirigir el vaixell a cada costat de la popa. Als vaixells destinats a les travessies de llarga distància, hi havia cabines teixides amb canyes. La mida de l'equip va arribar a les 70 persones. El més gran d'aquests vaixells s'assembla als vaixells del governant d'Uganda, Mtesa, al llac Victòria, descrits per Stanley al seu llibre Across the Black Continent, publicat el 1878, és a dir, més de 4600 anys després.
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Tasks related to establishing the dates of events and their sequence traditionally cause difficulties. The best results in preparing for the implementation of this group of tasks are given by systematic work on compiling

•tapes of family life,

•“rivers of history”,

• tapes of time,

•chronological complex (chronological and synchronistic tables),

• visual-figurative designation of time,

• schemes,

solving chronological problems.

When studying military conflicts, it seems useful to compile various information tables. For example, it is advisable to study the history of the Crimean War by systematizing the material in a table.

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To increase the effectiveness of the study of armed conflicts, one can refer to the well-established methodology for studying wars according to the scheme: the causes of war, the nature of the war, preparation for war, the balance of forces and plans of the belligerents, the reason for the war and its beginning, the main stages and main battles, the end of the war and the conditions of peace, the causes of a certain result of war, the meaning of war. The use of maps, illustrations, excerpts from films contributes to the assimilation of knowledge. Information is recorded in the form of a chronological table, an example of which is given above. The proposed information tables may be useful for developing the ability to establish correspondence between historical events and statesmen.

2) Tasks for knowledge of concepts, terms

3. Write down the term in question.

 Warriors who were recruited into the regular Russian army according to the service introduced by Peter I.

Answer: recruits. Question difficulty level: 1 (basic). Task cost: 1 point

Action algorithm:

We carefully read the terms of the assignment.

•Determine the era to which the term refers.

• We are looking for essential features (such a quality without which the subject ceases to be itself) of the term in the definition.

• We analyze the essential features, remember the events that are appropriate for a given period of time, define the term.

• We check ourselves again, write down the answer.

It is quite obvious that the era is the first quarter of the 18th century, namely the time of the Northern War (see: “introduced by Peter I”). In the definition of this concept, we single out two essential features: 1) soldiers, 2) carried a duty - regular military service. We recall: in the initial period of the Northern War, Peter I issued a decree on the introduction of recruitment, a new way of recruiting a regular army. We conclude that the term you are looking for is a recruit. We reread the definition, check our answer, write it down without spelling errors.

5. Below is a list of terms. All of them, with the exception of one, belong to the period 1894–1914.

1) Octobrists; 2) cadets; 3) strike; 4) Petrashevites; 5) petition.

Find and write down the ordinal number of the term that "falls out" of the given series.

Answer: 4. Question difficulty level: 1 (basic). Task cost: 1 point

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GUIDELINES

Useful in preparing for the implementation of this group of tasks is terminological work, which involves the semantization (explaining the meaning) of the concept, establishing links with previously known concepts, highlighting the essential features that distinguish this concept from others, mastering the terminology by ear and obligatory writing in a notebook . Important methods of working with concepts are “fourth extra”, “continue the row”, compiling a sentence with a term, compiling a crossword puzzle, searching for terms missing in the text, establishing a hierarchy, distributing terms into groups, etc.

3) Task for systematization of historical information (multiple choice)

4. Which of the listed cities were in the XIII-XIV centuries. administrative centers of Russian lands with a republican form of government? Choose two cities and write down the numbers under which they are indicated in the table.

1) Ryazan

2) Vladimir

3) Novgorod

4) Pskov

5) Kyiv

 Answer: 34. Question difficulty level: 1 (basic). Task cost: 2 points

4) Tasks for argumentation

6. Read four sentences. Two of them are theses (positions that need to be argued). The other two contain facts that can serve to substantiate these theses. Select the corresponding fact for each of the theses. Record the numbers of the corresponding proposals in the table.

1) Under Ivan IV, Russia pursued an active foreign policy in an eastern direction.

2) The policy of the oprichnina pursued by Ivan IV was disastrous for the country.

3) Many central districts of Russia were devastated.

4) Russian troops took Kazan.

 The number of the proposal containing
thesis 1 fact 1 thesis 2 fact 2
Answer:
Answer: 1423. Question difficulty level: 1 (basic). Task cost: 1 point

GUIDELINES

The main task of students in completing this task is to identify the difference between theses and facts, to establish a connection between the thesis and the fact, to understand whether the fact really clearly confirms the proposed position.

Thesis (Greek thesis - position, statement) is the initial position, the truth of which must be proved.

Fact (from lat. factum - done, accomplished) - a real, real-life, non-fictional event, phenomenon, something that actually happened; basis of theoretical generalization, conclusion.

Action algorithm:

We carefully read the terms of the assignment.

•Determine the theses - provisions that need to be proved.

• We are looking for facts (real events) that substantiate (prove) these theses. From the thesis to the facts, you can ask the question "Why can we say this?", And the facts answer: "Because."

• We check ourselves again, write down the answer.

The first sentence: "Under Ivan IV, Russia pursued an active foreign policy in an eastern direction" is thesis No. 1 that needs to be proved. How did we define it? There are no facts in this sentence, i.e. actual events, this sentence may or may not be true.

Let's prove this thesis. We ask the question: “Why can we say this?”. Answer: "Russian troops took Kazan" will be fact number 1. We check ourselves: 1. Kazan was located east of Russia, in 1552 it was taken and annexed to the Russian state. 2. The sentence “Many central uyezds of Russia were ruined” does not correspond to thesis No. 1 (the central uyezds are located inside the country, and this is the thesis about foreign policy).

The sentence: “The policy of the oprichnina pursued by Ivan IV was disastrous for the country” is thesis No. 2 that needs to be proven. We ask the question: “Why can we say this?”. Answer: “Many central districts of Russia were devastated” will be fact number 2. We check ourselves: 1. The result of the oprichnina policy was an economic crisis - “the ruin of the 70s”, the manifestation of which was the ruin of many districts, especially the central ones, identified by Ivan IV to the oprichnina.

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• Establish what historical events, facts are displayed by this source. Using contextual information, restore the causes, content, consequences, participants of this event.

• Based on the information received, formulate answers to the questions posed in the tasks.

•Check and write down the answers.

2) Causal relationships

21. Which of the following was one of the reasons (prerequisites) for the start of the Great Reforms in Russia in the 1860s–1870s?

- unfortunate end of the Russo-Japanese War

- an attempt by D.V. Karakozov on Emperor Alexander II

- Russia's failures in the Crimean War

- Creation of the organization "Narodnaya Volya"

Explain how the position you have chosen is connected with the beginning of the Great Reforms in Russia in the 1860s–1870s.

Answer:

Correct Answer Content and Grading Instructions

(Other formulations of the answer are allowed that do not distort its meaning)

Points
The correct answer must contain the following elements:

1) the correct answer is Russia's failures in the Crimean War;

2) explanation, for example: defeat in the Crimean War

demonstrated Russia's economic lagging behind

the strongest European powers. The reason for this delay was

the existence of serfdom, which created a shortage

labor force, hindered the improvement of labor efficiency and

thus hindering the development of industry. As a result

defeat, the ruling elite realized the need to abolish

serfdom, which, in turn, led to the need

implementation of other reforms.

(Another explanation that is close in meaning may be given.)

 
Correct answer and correct explanation given 2
Correct answer given, no explanation given.

OR Correct answer given, explanation incorrect

one
Wrong answer

0
Maximum score 2

Task execution algorithm:
Read the terms of the assignment carefully.
•Remember what a causal relationship is.

A causal relationship is a relationship between historical events (processes, phenomena), in which one event (process, phenomenon), called a cause, in the presence of certain historical conditions, gives rise to another event (process, phenomenon), called a consequence.

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